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Soil Survey Manual - Chapter Three (Part 1 of 9)Examination and Description of SoilsTable of Contents
IntroductionA description of the soils is essential in any soil survey. This chapter provides standards and guidelines for describing most soil properties and for describing the necessary related facts. For some soils, standard terms are not adequate and must be supplemented by a narrative. The length of time that cracks remain open, the patterns of soil temperature and moisture, and the variations in size, shape, and hardness of clods in the surface layer must be observed over time and summarized. This chapter does not include a discussion of every possible soil property. For some soils, other properties need to be described. Good judgment will decide what properties merit attention in detail for any given pedon (sampling unit). Observations must not be limited by preconceived ideas about what is important. Although the format of the description and the order in which individual properties are described are less important than the content of the description, a standard format has distinct advantages. The reader can find information more rapidly, and the writer is less likely to omit important features. Furthermore, a standard format makes it easier to code data for automatic processing. If forms are used, they must include space for all possible information. Formats for recording and retrieving information about pedons will be discussed in more detail in chapter 5. Each investigation of the internal properties of a soil is made on a soil body of some dimensions. The body may be larger than a pedon or represent a portion of a pedon. During field operations, many soils are investigated by examining the soil material removed by a sampling tube or an auger. For rapid investigations of thin soils, a small pit can be dug and a section of soil removed with a spade. All of these are samples of pedons. Knowledge of the internal properties of a soil is derived mainly from studies of such samples. They can be studied more rapidly than entire pedons; consequently, a much larger number can be studied in many more places. For many soils, the information obtained from such a small sample describes the pedon from which it is taken with few omissions. For other soils, however, important properties of a pedon are not observable in the smaller sample, and detailed studies of entire pedons may be needed. Complete study of an entire pedon requires the exposure of a vertical section and the removal of horizontal sections layer by layer. Horizons are studied in both horizontal and vertical dimensions. Some General Terms Used in Describing SoilsSeveral of the general terms for internal elements of the soil are described here; other more specific terms are described or defined in the following sections. A soil profile is exposed by a vertical cut through the soil. It is commonly conceived as a plane at right angles to the surface. In practice, a description of a soil profile includes soil properties that can be determined only by inspecting volumes of soil. A description of a pedon is commonly based on examination of a profile, and the properties of the pedon are projected from the properties of the profile. The width of a profile ranges from a few decimeters to several meters or more. It should be sufficient to include the largest structural units. A soil horizon is a layer, approximately parallel to the surface of the soil, distinguishable from adjacent layers by a distinctive set of properties produced by the soil-forming processes. The term layer, rather than horizon, is used if all of the properties are believed to be inherited from the parent material or no judgment is made as to whether the layer is genetic. The solum (plural, sola) of a soil consists of a set of horizons that are related through the same cycle of pedogenic processes. In terms of soil horizons described in this chapter, a solum consists of A, E, and B horizons and their transitional horizons and some O horizons. Included are horizons with an accumulation of carbonates or more soluble salts if they are either within, or contiguous, to other genetic horizons and are judged to be at least partly produced in the same period of soil formation. The solum of a soil presently at the surface, for example, includes all horizons now forming. It includes a bisequum (to be discussed). It does not include a buried soil or a layer unless it has acquired some of its properties by currently active soil-forming processes. The solum of a soil is not necessarily confined to the zone of major biological activity. Its genetic horizons may be expressed faintly to prominently. A solum does not have a maximum or a minimum thickness. Solum and soils are not synonymous. Some soils include layers that are not affected by soil formation. These layers are not part of the solum. The number of genetic horizons ranges from one to many. An A horizon that is 10 cm thick overlying bedrock is by itself the solum. A soil that consists only of recently deposited alluvium or recently exposed soft sediment does not have a solum.1 In terms of soil horizons described in this chapter, a solum consists of A, E, and B horizons and their transitional horizons and some O horizons. Included are horizons with an accumulation of carbonates or more soluble salts if they are either within, or contiguous, to other genetic horizons and are judged to be at least partly produced in the same period of soil formation. The lower limit, in a general sense, in many soils should be related to the depth of rooting to be expected for perennial plants assuming that water state and chemistry are not limiting. In some soils the lower limit of the solum can be set only arbitrarily and needs to be defined in relation to the particular soil. For example, horizons of carbonate accumulation are easily visualized as part of the solum in many soils in arid and semiarid environments. To conceive of hardened carbonate accumulations extending for 5 meters or more below the B horizon as part of the solum is more difficult. Gleyed soil material begins in some soils a few centimeters below the surface and continues practically unchanged to a depth of many meters. Gleying immediately below the A horizon is likely to be related to the processes of soil formation in the modern soil. At great depth, gleying is likely to be relict or related to processes that are more geological than pedological. Much the same kind of problem exists in some deeply weathered soils in which the deepest material penetrated by roots is very similar to the weathered material at much greater depth. For some soils, digging deep enough to reveal all of the relationships between soils and plants is not practical. Roots of plants, for example, may derive much of their moisture from fractured bedrock close to the surface. Descriptions should indicate the nature of the soil-rock contact and as much as can be determined about the upper part of the underlying rock. A sequum (plural, sequa) is a B horizon together with any overlying eluvial horizons. A single sequum is considered to be the product of a specific combination of soil-forming processes. Most soils have a single sequum, but some have two or more. A Spodosol, for example, can form in the upper part of an Alfisol, producing an eluviated zone and a spodic horizon underlain by another eluviated zone overlying an argillic horizon. Such a soil has two sequa. Soils in which two sequa have formed, one above the other in the same deposit, are said to be bisequal. If two sequa formed in different deposits at different times, the soil is not bisequal. For example, a soil having an A-E-B horizon sequence may form in material that was deposited over another soil that already had an A-E-B horizon sequence. Each set of A-E-B horizons is a sequum but the combination is not a bisequum. The lower set is a buried soil. If the horizons of the upper sequum extend into the underlying sequum, the affected layer is considered part of the upper sequum. For example, the A horizon of the lower soil may retain some of its original characteristics and also have some characteristics of the overlying soil. Here, too, the soils are not considered bisequal; the upper part of the lower soil is the parent material of the lower part of the currently forming soil. In many soils the distinction cannot be made with certainty. Nevertheless, the distinction is useful when it can be made. Where some of the C material of the upper sequum remains, the distinction is clear. Studying PedonsPedons representative of an extensive mappable area are generally more useful than pedons that represent the border of an area or a small inclusion. For a soil description to be of greatest value, the part of the landscape that the pedon represents and the vegetation should be described. This is referred to as the setting. The level of detail will depend on the objectives. A complete setting description should include information about the encompassing polypedon and, possibly, the polypedons conterminous with the encompassing polypedon (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Furthermore, the setting may include information about the portion of the polypedon that differs from the central concept of the polypedon. The description of a body of soil in the field, whether an entire pedon or a sample within it, should record the kinds of layers, their depth and thickness, and the properties of each layer. Generally, external features are observed throughout the extent of the polypedon; internal features are observed from the study of a pedon or that part of a pedon that is judged to be representative of the polypedon (see appendix). A pedon for detailed study of a soil is tentatively selected and then examined preliminarily to verify that it represents the desired segment of its range. A pit exposing a vertical face approximately 1 meter across to an appropriate depth is satisfactory for most soils.2 After the sides of the pit are cleaned of all loose material disturbed by digging, the exposed vertical faces are examined, usually starting at the top and working downward, to identify significant changes in properties. Boundaries between layers are marked on the face of the pit, and the layers are identified and described. Photographs should be taken (ch. 5) after the layers have been identified but before the vertical section is disturbed in the description-writing process. A point-count for estimation of the volume of stones or other features also is done before the layers are disturbed. A horizontal view of each layer is useful. This exposes structural units that otherwise may not be observable. Patterns of color within structural units, variations of particle size from the outside to the inside of structural units, and the pattern in which roots penetrate structural units are often seen more clearly in a horizontal section. Excavations associated with roads, railways, gravel pits, and other soil disturbances provide easy access for studying soils; old exposures, however, must be used cautiously. The soils dry out or freeze and thaw from both the surface and the sides. Frequently, the soil structure in such excavations is more pronounced than is typical; salts may accumulate near the edges of exposures or be removed by seepage; and other changes may have taken place. Depth to and Thickness of Horizons and LayersDepth is measured from the soil surface. The soil surface is the top of the mineral soil; or, for soils with an 0 horizon, the soil surface is the top of the part of the 0 horizon that is at least slightly decomposed. Fresh leaf or needle fall that has not undergone observable decomposition is excluded from soil and may be described separately. The top of any surface horizon identified as an O horizon, whether Oi, Oe, or Oa, is considered the soil surface. For soils with a cover of 80 percent or more rock fragments on the surface, the depth is measured from the surface of the rock fragments. The depth to a horizon or layer boundary commonly differs within short distances, even within a pedon. The part of the pedon that is typical or most common is described. In the soil description, the horizon or layer designation is listed and is followed by the values that represent the depths from the soil surface to the upper and lower boundaries, in that order. The depth to the lower boundary of a horizon or layer is the depth to the upper boundary of the horizon or layer beneath it. The variation in the depths of the boundaries is recorded in the description of the horizon or layer. The depth limits of the deepest horizon or layer described include only that part actually seen. In some soils the variations in depths to boundaries are so complex that usual terms for description of topography of the boundary are inadequate. These variations are described separately. For example, "depth to the lower boundary is mainly 30 to 40 cm, but tongues extend to depths of 60 to 80 cm." The lower boundary of horizon or layer and the upper boundary of the horizon or layer below share a common irregularity. The thickness of each horizon or layer is the vertical distance between the upper and lower boundaries. Thickness may vary within a pedon, and this variation should be shown in the description. A range in thickness may be given. It cannot be calculated from the range of upper and lower boundaries but rather must be evaluated across the exposure at different lateral points. The location of upper and lower boundaries are commonly in different places. The upper boundary of a horizon, for example, may range in depth from 25 to 45 cm and the lower boundary from 50 to 75 cm. Taking the extremes of these two ranges, a wrong conclusion could be that the horizon ranges in thickness from as little as 5 cm to as much as 50 cm. Land Surface ConfigurationLand surface configuration considered here is geometrical and includes soil slope and land surface shape. Landform from a morphogenetic aspect is not considered. It may be applicable to a pedon or to a larger area. Land surface configuration and relief are quite different as used here, although the meanings may be similar in other contexts. Relief, in this context, refers to the elevation or differences in elevation above mean sea level, considered collectively, of a land surface on a broad scale. Elevation can be determined from topographic maps or by using a calibrated altimeter. Soil SlopeSlope has a scale connotation. It refers to the ground surface configuration for scales that exceed about 10 meters and range upward to the landscape as a whole. Slope has gradient, complexity, length, and aspect. The scale of reference commonly exceeds that of the pedon and should be indicated. The scale may embrace a map unit delineation, component of it, or an arbitrary area. Slope gradient is the inclination of the surface of the soil from the horizontal. It is generally measured with a hand level. The difference in elevation between two points is expressed as a percentage of the distance between those points. If the difference in elevation is 1 meter over a horizontal distance of 100 meters, slope gradient is 1 percent. A slope of 45° is a slope of 100 percent, because the difference in elevation between two points 100 meters apart horizontally is 100 meters on a 45° slope. Overland flow gradient is the slope of the soil surface in the direction of flow of surface water if it were present. The following examples show equivalences between percentage gradient and degree of slope angle:
Slope Complexity refers to surface form on the scale of a mapping unit delineation. In many places internal soil properties are more closely related to the slope complexity than to the gradient. Slope complexity has an important influence on the amount and rate of runoff and on sedimentation associated with runoff. A guide to terminology for various slope classes defined in terms of gradient and complexity is given in table 3-1. The terms are used in discussing soil slope, and they can also be used in naming slope phases, as discussed in the next chapter. Table 3-1. Definitions of slope classes
Terms are provided for both simple and for complex slopes in some classes. Complex slopes are groups of slopes that have definite breaks in several different directions and in most cases markedly different slope gradients within the areas delineated. Significance of slope gradient is tied to other soil properties and to the purposes of soil surveys. Conventions are, therefore, provided in table 3-1 to adjust the slope limits of the various classes. Gently sloping or undulating soils, for example, can be defined to range as broadly as 1 to 8 percent or as narrowly as 3 to 5 percent. Classes may exceed the broadest range indicated in table 3-1 by a percentage point or two where the range is narrow and by as much as 5 percent or more where the range is broad. If the detail of mapping requires slope classes that are more detailed than those in table 3-1, some of the classes can be divided as follows:
In a highly detailed survey, for example, slope classes of 0 to 1 percent and 1 to 3 percent would be named "level" and "nearly level." Slope length has considerable control over runoff and potential accelerated water erosion. Terms such as "long" or "short" can be used to describe slope lengths that are typical of certain kinds of soils. These terms are usually relative within a physiographic region. A "long" slope in one place might be "short" in another. If such terms are used, they are defined locally. For observations at a particular point, it may be useful to record the length of the slope that contributes water to the point in addition to the total length of the slope. The former is called point runoff slope length. The sediment transport slope length is the distance from the expected or observed initiation upslope of runoff to the highest local elevation where deposition of sediment would be expected to occur. This distance need not be the same as the point runoff slope length. Slope aspect is the direction toward which the surface of the soil faces. The direction is expressed as an angle between 0 degree and 360 degrees (measured clockwise from true north) or as a compass point such as east or north-northwest. Slope aspect may affect soil temperature, evapotranspiration, and winds received. Land Surface ShapeLand surface shape has two components (fig. 3-1). One component is in a direction roughly parallel to the contours of the landform (or the contour lines on a map) as seen from directly overhead. The other component of shape is a direction perpendicular to the contours; that is, the shape of the slope as seen from the side. The shape parallel to the contours is less commonly consistent for a soil than is the shape perpendicular to the contours.
The shape parallel to the contours (across the slope) can be described by the shape of the contours. The shape is linear if contours are substantially a straight line, as on the side of a lateral moraine. An alluvial fan has a convex contour, as does a spur of the upland projecting into a valley. A cove on a hillside or a cirque in glaciated landscapes has concave contours. In figure 3-1, the two upper blocks have concave contours and the two lower blocks have convex contours. Where the contour is convex, runoff water tends to spread laterally as it moves down the slope. Where the contour is concave, runoff water tends to be concentrated toward the middle of the landform. The shape of the surface at right angles to the contours (up and down the slope) may also be described as linear, convex, or concave. Shape in this direction is usually identified simply as slope shape in contrast to slope contour in the other dimension. The surface of a linear slope is substantially a straight line when seen in profile at right angles to the contours. The gradient neither increases nor decreases significantly with distance. An example is the dip slope of a cuesta. On a concave slope (fig. 3-1), gradient decreases down the slope as on foot slopes. Runoff water tends to decelerate as it moves down the slope, and if it is loaded with sediment, the water tends to deposit the sediment on the lower parts of the slope. The soil on the lower part of the slope also tends to dispose of water less rapidly than the soil above it. On a convex slope (fig. 3-1), such as the shoulder or a ridge, gradient increases down the slope and runoff tends to accelerate as it flows down the slope. Soil on the lower part of the slope tends to dispose of water by runoff more rapidly than the soil above it. The soil on the lower part of a convex slope is subject to greater erosion than that on the higher part. The configuration of the surface of a soil may be described in terms of both the shape of the contour and the shape of the slope. For example, a surface can be described as having a convex contour and a convex slope (an alluvial fan) or a linear contour and concave slope (the base of a moraine). Description of an areal shape from the shape of two intersecting lines at right angles is applicable to all scales and does not require a contour map. The lines commonly would be parallel to and at right angles to the contour. Four line shapes are illustrated in figure 3-2: linear, hyperbolic concave (declining slope gradient along the line), concave, and convex. Convex site may be usefully separated into apical (summit) and nonapical (shoulder) positions.
Microrelief refers to differences in ground-surface height, measured over distances of meters. Naturally formed features contrast with those that are tillage-determined. In areas of similar relief, the surface may be nearly uniform, or it may be interrupted by mounds, swales, or pits. Examples include the microrelief created when trees are blown over, referred to as cradle-knoll microrelief. This consists of the knoll left by the earth that clung to the roots of the tree when it was uprooted and the depression from which it came. Coppice dunes form where windblown soil material accumulates around widely spaced plants in arid regions. Gilgai produced by expansion and contraction of soils is a form of microrelief (fig. 3-3). Mima mounds and biscuit-scabland are other examples of microrelief, although individual mounds may cover 100 square meters or more. Descriptions should indicate whether mounds or depressions are closed, form a network, or are in a linear pattern. If mounds rest on a smooth surface, their size and spacing should be described. At a specific site within an area having microrelief, it is important to note whether a described pedon is at a high point, on a slope, in a depression, or at some combination of these places. Internal soil properties in mounds may be different from the properties in depressions.
Roughness refers to a ground surface configuration with a repeat distance between prominences of less than 50 cm and for areas less than about 10 m across. This scale applies to most tillage operations and affects aspects of land surface water flow such as detention, infiltration, runoff, and erosion. Roughness, as used here, pertains to the ground surface and includes rock fragments on the surface. It does not include vegetation. If vegetation is included, the fact should be indicated. Roughness along a line, referred to as one-dimensional roughness, can be measured more easily than can roughness for an area. Area measurements, however, permit the separation of random and tillage-determined roughness. The orientation to which the observation of one-dimensional roughness pertains must be specified relative to the direction of surface runoff or of air movement. Position within the tillage-determined relief, if present, should be indicated for one-dimensional roughness. An example of such a position would be the non-traffic interrow in a tilled field. The standard deviation of the ground surface height is the primary descriptor. There are a number of approaches to the measurement of roughness, and those who are in agronomic disciplines should be consulted. The measurements depend on the variation in height from a leveled reference. Photographs may be used to illustrate the classes; placement in classes may be made directly from the photographs. VegetationCorrelations between vegetation and soils are made for three main purposes: (1) understanding soil genesis, (2) recognizing soil boundaries, and (3) making predictions from soil maps about the kind and amount of vegetation produced. The principal kinds of plants present are listed in order of their abundance. In annual cropland, the plant or plants that have been grown should be recorded, including significant weeds. In forested areas, separate treatment is often necessary for forest trees, understory of small trees and shrubs, and the ground cover. Many soils in range have an overstory of shrubs or low trees. These are listed separately from the grasses, forbs, and other ground cover. An idea of the density of stand or plant cover, such as average canopy cover of trees or shrubs, should be given. The range in size of dominant species of trees can be given as "diameter breast height," if desired. Estimated percentage of the ground covered by grasses and forbs should be included. Common names of the plants may be used, if such names are clear and specific. In areas where the plants are important for the use and interpretation of the soil map, the soil survey record should include both common and scientific names of plants. If possible, the kinds and amounts of plants in the potential natural vegetation on a soil should be estimated. This vegetation is closely related to the soil and its genesis. Generally, a close relationship exists between native vegetation and kinds of soil, yet there are important exceptions. Observations of the growth of native vegetation and cultivated crops aid in recognizing soil boundaries and provide direct information about the behavior of specific plants on different kinds of soil. Within fields of a single crop, differences of vigor, stand, or color of the crop or of weeds commonly mark soil differences and are valuable clues to the location of soil boundaries. By studying many sites of the same kind of soil under different land-use history, the potential plant community and principles of plant succession for that kind of soil can be ascertained, particularly if range and forestry specialists provide assistance. Farmers learn which crops do well and which do poorly on different kinds of soil and adjust their cropping patterns accordingly. If the differences are large—as between crop failure and reasonable performance—the near absence of a given crop on a specific kind of soil questions the suitability of that kind of soil for the crop. If the differences are small, many non-soil factors can determine the farmer's choice of fields for a given crop. Yield information for cultivated crops, range, and trees should be associated with pedon descriptions insofar as possible. Ground Surface CoverThe ground surface of most soils is covered to some extent at least part of the year by vegetation. Furthermore, in many soils rock fragments form part of the mineral material at the soil surface. Together, the vegetal material that is not part of the surface horizon and the rock fragments form the ground surface cover. The proportion of cover, together with its characteristics, is very important in determining thermal properties and resistance to erosion. At one extreme, estimation of cover can be made visually without quantitative measurement. At the other extreme, transect techniques can be used to make a rather complete modal analyses of the ground surface. More effort is justified on ground surface documentation if it is relatively permanent. In many instances, a combination of rapid visual estimates and transect techniques is appropriate. The ground surface may be divided into fine earth and material other than fine earth. The latter consists of rock fragments and both alive and dead vegetation. Vegetation is separated into canopy and noncanopy. A canopy component has a relatively large cross sectional area capable of intercepting rainfall compared to the area near enough to the ground surface to affect overland water flow. In practice, the separation of canopy from noncanopy should be coordinated with the protocols for computation of susceptibility to erosion. Noncanopy material is commonly referred to as mulch. It includes rock fragments and vegetation. The first step in evaluation is to decide upon the ground surface cover components. The number is usually one to three. A common three-component land surface consists of trees, bushes, and areas between the two. The areal proportion of each component must be established. This may be done by transect. If a canopy component is present, the area within the drip line as a percent of the ground surface is determined. For each canopy component, the effectiveness must be established. Effectiveness is the percent of vertical raindrops that would be intercepted. Usually the canopy effectiveness is estimated visually, but a spherical densitometer may be used. In addition to the canopy effectiveness, the mulch (rock fragments plus vegetation) must be established for each component. Transect techniques may be employed to determine the mulch percentage. The mulch can be subdivided into rock fragments and vegetation. From the areal proportions of the components and their respective canopy efficiencies and mulch percentages, the soil-loss ratio may be computed for the whole land surface (Wischmeier, 1978). In addition to the observations for the computation of the soil-loss ratio, information may be obtained about the percent of kinds of plants, size of rock fragments, amount of green leaf area, and aspects of color of the immediate surface that would affect absorption of radiant energy in an area. Parent MaterialParent material refers to unconsolidated organic and mineral materials in which soils form. The parent material of a genetic horizon cannot be observed in its original state; it must be inferred from the properties that the horizon has inherited and from other evidence. In some soils, the parent material has changed little, and what it was like can be deduced with confidence. In others, such as some very old soils of the tropics, the specific kind of parent material or its mode or origin is speculative. Much of the mineral matter in which soils form is derived in one way or another from hard rocks. Glaciers may grind the rock into fragments and earthy material and deposit the mixture of particles as glacial till. On the other hand, rock may be weathered with great chemical and physical changes but not moved from its place of origin; this altered material is called "residuum from rock." In some cases, little is gained from attempting to differentiate between geologic weathering and soil formation because both are weathering processes. It may be possible to infer that a material was weathered before soil formation. The weathering process causes some process constituents to be lost, some to be transformed, and others to be concentrated. Parent material may not necessarily be residuum from the bedrock that is directly below, and the material that developed into a modern soil may be unrelated to the underlying bedrock. Movement of soil material downslope is an important process and can be appreciable even on gentle slopes, especially on very old landscapes. Also, locally associated soils may form in sedimentary rock layers that are different. Seldom is there certainty that a highly weathered material weathered in place. The term "residuum" is used when the properties of the soil indicate that it has been derived from rock like that which underlies it and when evidence is lacking that it has been modified by movement. A rock fragment distribution that decreases in amount with depth, especially over saprolite, indicates that soil material probably has been transported downslope. Stone lines, especially if the stones have a different lithology than the underlying bedrock, provide evidence that the soil did not form entirely in residuum. In some soils, transported material overlies residuum and illuvial organic matter and clay are superimposed across the discontinuity between the contrasting materials. A certain degree of landscape stability is inferred for residual soils. A lesser degree is inferred for soils that developed in transported material. Both consolidated and unconsolidated material beneath the solum that influence the genesis and behavior of the soil are described in standard terms. Besides the observations themselves, the scientist records his judgment about the origin of the parent material from which the solum developed. The observations must be separated clearly from inferences. The lithologic composition, structure and consistence of the material directly beneath the solum are important. Evidence of stratification of the material—textural differences, stone lines, and the like—need to be noted. Commonly, the upper layers of outwash deposits settled out of more slowly moving water and are finer in texture than the lower layers. Windblown material and volcanic ash are laid down at different rates in blankets of varying thickness. Examples of such complications are nearly endless. Where alluvium, loess, or ash are rapidly deposited on old soils, buried soils may be well preserved. Elsewhere the accumulation is so slow that the solum thickens only gradually. In such places, the material beneath the solum was once near the surface but may now be buried below the zone of active change. Where hard rocks or other strongly contrasting materials lie near enough to the surface to affect the behavior of the soil, their depths need to be measured accurately. The depth of soil over such nonconforming materials is an important criterion for distinguishing different kinds of soil. Geological materials need to be defined in accordance with the accepted standards and nomenclature of geology. The accepted, authoritative names of the geological formations are recorded in soil descriptions where these can be identified with reasonable accuracy. As soil research progresses, an increasing number of correlations are being found between particular geological formations and the mineral and nutrient content of parent materials and soils. For example, certain terrace materials and deposits of volcanic ash that are different in age or source, but otherwise indistinguishable, vary widely in the content of cobalt. Wide variations in the phosphorus content of two otherwise similar soils may reflect differences in the phosphorus content of two similar limestones that can be distinguished in the field only by specific fossils. Igneous rocks formed by the solidification of molten materials that originated within the earth. Examples of igneous rocks that weather to important soil material are granite, syenite, basalt, andesite, diabase, and rhyolite. Sedimentary rocks formed from sediments laid down in previous geological ages. The principal broad groups of sedimentary rocks are limestone, sandstone, shale, and conglomerate. There are many varieties of these broad classes of sedimentary rocks; for example, chalk and marl are soft varieties of limestone. Many types are intermediate between the broad groups, such as calcareous sandstone and arenaceous limestone. Also included are deposits of diatomaceous earth, which formed, from the siliceous remains of primitive plants called diatoms. Metamorphic rocks resulted from profound alteration of igneous and sedimentary rocks by heat and pressure. General classes of metamorphic rocks important as parent material are gneiss, schist, slate, marble, quartzite, and phyllite. The principal broad subdivisions of parent material are discussed in the following paragraphs. Material Produced by Weathering of Rock in PlaceThe nature of the original rock affects the kinds of material produced by weathering. The rock may have undergone various changes, including changes in volume and loss of minerals—plagioclase feldspar and other minerals. Rock may lose mineral material without any change in volume or in the original rock structure, and saprolite is formed. Essentially, saprolite is a parent material. The point where rock weathering ends and soil formation begins is not always clear. The processes may be consecutive and even overlapping. Quite different soils may form from similar or even identical rocks under different weathering conditions. Texture, color, consistence, and other characteristics of the material should be included in the description of soils, as well as important features such as quartz dikes. Useful information about the mineralogical composition, consistence, and structure of the parent rock itself should be added to help in understanding the changes from parent rock to weathered material. Transported MaterialThe most extensive group of parent materials is the group that has been moved from the place of origin and deposited elsewhere. The principal groups of transported materials are usually named according to the main agent responsible for their transport and deposition. In most places, sufficient evidence is available to make a clear determination; elsewhere, the precise origin is uncertain. In soil morphology and classification, it is exceedingly important that the characteristics of the material itself be observed and described. It is not enough simply to identify the parent material. Any doubt of the correctness of the identification should be mentioned. For example, it is often impossible to be sure whether certain silty deposits are alluvium, loess, or residuum. Certain mud flows are indistinguishable from glacial till. Some sandy glacial till is nearly identical to sandy outwash. Fortunately, hard-to-make distinctions are not always of significance for soil behavior predictions. Material moved and deposited by waterAlluvium.—Alluvium consists of sediment deposited by running water. It may occur on terraces well above present streams or in the normally flooded bottom land of existing streams. Remnants of very old stream terraces may be found in dissected country far from any present stream. Along many old established streams lie a whole series of alluvial deposits in terraces—young deposits in the immediate flood plain, up step by step to the very old deposits on the highest terraces. In some places recent alluvium covers older terraces. Lacustrine deposits.—These deposits consist of material that has settled out of bodies of still water. Deposits laid down in fresh-water lakes associated directly with glaciers are commonly included as are other lake deposits, including some of Pleistocene age that are not associated with the continental glaciers. Some lake basins in the Western United States are commonly called playas; the soils in these basins may be more or less salty, depending on climate and drainage. Marine sediments.—These sediments settled out of the sea and commonly were reworked by currents and tides. Later they were exposed either naturally or following the construction of dikes and drainage canals. They vary widely in composition. Some resemble lacustrine deposits. Beach deposits.—Beach deposits mark the present or former shorelines of the sea or lakes. These deposits are low ridges of sorted material and are commonly sandy, gravelly, cobbly, or stony. Deposits on the beaches of former glacial lakes are usually included with glacial drift. Material moved and deposited by windWindblown material can be divided into groups based on particle size or on origin. Volcanic ash and cinders are examples of materials classed by both particle size and origin. Other windblown material that is mainly silty is called loess, and that which is primarily sand is called eolian sand. Eolian sand is commonly but not always in dunes. Nearly all textures intermediate between silty loess and sandy dune material can be found. Volcanic ash, pumice, and cinders are sometimes regarded as unconsolidated igneous rock, but they have been moved from their place of origin. Most have been reworked by wind and, in places, by water. Ash is volcanic ejecta smaller than 2 mm. Ash smaller than 0.05 mm may be called "fine ash." Pumice and cinders are volcanic ejecta 2 mm or larger. Loess deposits typically are very silty but may contain significant amounts of clay and very fine sand. Most loess deposits are pale brown to brown, although gray and red colors are common. The thick deposits are generally massive and have some gross vertical cracking. The walls of road cuts in thick loess stand nearly vertical for years. Other silty deposits that formed in other ways have some or all of these characteristics. Some windblown silt has been leached and strongly weathered so that it is acid and rich in clay. On the other hand, some young deposits of windblown material (loess) are mainly silt and very fine sand and are low in clay. Sand dunes, particularly in warm, humid regions, characteristically consist of fine or medium sand that is high in quartz and low in clay-forming materials. Sand dunes may contain large amounts of calcium carbonate or gypsum, especially in deserts and semideserts. During periods of drought and in deserts, local wind movements may mix and pile up soil material of different textures or even material that is very rich in clay. Piles of such material have been called "soil dunes" or "clay dunes." Rather than identify local accumulations of mixed material moved by the wind as "loess" or "dunes," however, it is better to refer to them as "wind-deposited material." Also important but not generally recognized as a distinctive deposit is dust, which is carried for long distances and deposited in small increments on a large part of the world. Dust can circle the earth in the upper atmosphere. Dust particles are mostly clay and very fine silt and may be deposited dry or be in precipitation. The accumulated deposits are large in some places. An immense amount of dust has been distributed widely throughout the ages. The most likely sources at present are the drier regions of the world. Large amounts of dust may have been distributed worldwide during and immediately following the glacial periods. Dust is an important factor affecting soils in some places. It is the apparent source of the unexpected fertility of some old, highly leached soils in the path of wind that blows from extensive deserts some hundreds of kilometers distant. It explains unexpected micronutrient distribution in some places. Besides dust, fixed nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and other elements from the atmosphere are deposited on the soil in varying amounts in solution in precipitation. Material moved and deposited by glacial processesSeveral terms are used for material that has been moved and deposited by glacial processes. Glacial drift consists of all of the material picked up, mixed, disintegrated, transported, and deposited by glacial ice or by water from melting glaciers. In many places glacial drift is covered by a mantle of loess. Deep mantles of loess are usually easily recognized, but very thin mantles may be so altered by soil-building forces that they can scarcely be differentiated from the underlying modified drift. Glacial till.—This is that part of the glacial drift deposited directly by the ice with little or no transportation by water. It is generally an unstratified, heterogeneous mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and sometimes boulders. Some of the mixture settled out as the ice melted with very little washing by water, and some was overridden by the glacier and is compacted and unsorted. Till may be found in ground moraines, terminal moraines, medial moraines, and lateral moraines. In many places it is important to differentiate between the tills of the several glaciations. Commonly, the tills underlie one another and may be separated by other deposits or old, weathered surfaces. Many deposits of glacial till were later eroded by the wave action in glacial lakes. The upper part of such wave-cut till may have a high percentage of rock fragments. Glacial till ranges widely in texture, chemical composition, and the degree of weathering that followed its deposition. Much till is calcareous, but an important part is noncalcareous because no carbonate rocks contributed to the material or because subsequent leaching and chemical weathering have removed the carbonates. Glaciofluvial deposits.—These deposits are material produced by glaciers and carried, sorted, and deposited by water that originated mainly from melting glacial ice. Glacial outwash is a broad term for material swept out, sorted, and deposited beyond the glacial ice front by streams of melt water. Commonly, this outwash is in the form of plains, valley trains, or deltas in old glacial lakes. The valley trains of outwash may extend far beyond the farthest advance of the ice. Near moraines, poorly sorted glaciofluvial material may form kames, eskers, and crevasse fills. Glacial beach deposits.—These consist of rock fragments and sand. They mark the beach lines of former glacial lakes. Depending on the character of the original drift, beach deposits may be sandy, gravelly, cobbly, or stony. Glaciolacustrine deposits.—These deposits are derived from glaciers but were reworked and laid down in glacial lakes. They range from fine clay to sand. Many of them are stratified or varved. A varve consists of the deposition for a calendar year. The finer portion reflects slower deposition during the cold season and the coarser portion deposition during the warmer season when runoff is greater. Good examples of all of the glacial materials and forms described in the preceding paragraphs can be found. In many places, however, it is not easy to distinguish definitely among the kinds of drift on the basis of mode of origin and landform. For example, pitted outwash plains can scarcely be distinguished from sandy till in terminal moraines. Distinguishing between wave-cut till and lacustrine material is often difficult. The names themselves connote only a little about the actual characteristics of the parent material. Material moved and deposited by gravityColluvium is poorly sorted debris that has accumulated at the base of slopes, in depressions, or along small streams through gravity, soil creep, and local wash. It consists largely of material that has rolled, slid or fallen down the slope under the influence of gravity. Accumulations of rock fragments are called talus. The rock fragments in colluvium are usually angular, in contrast to the rounded, water-worn cobbles and stones in alluvium and glacial outwash. Organic MaterialOrganic material accumulates in wet places where it is deposited more rapidly than it decomposes. These deposits are called peat. This peat in turn may become parent material for soils. The principal general kinds of peat, according to origin are:
Many deposits of organic material are mixtures of peat. Some organic soils formed in alternating layers of different kinds of peat. In places peat is mixed with deposits of mineral alluvium and/or volcanic ash. Some organic soils contain layers that are largely or entirely mineral material. In describing organic soils, the material is called peat (fibric) if virtually all of the organic remains are sufficiently fresh and intact to permit identification of plant forms. It is called muck (sapric) if virtually all of the material has undergone sufficient decomposition to limit recognition of the plant parts. It is called mucky peat (hemic) if a significant part of the material can be recognized and a significant part cannot. Descriptions of organic material should include the origin and the botanical composition of the material to the extent that these can be reasonably inferred. Contrasting MaterialsChanges with depth that are not primarily related to pedogenesis but rather to geological processes are contrasting soil materials if they are sufficient to affect use and management. The term discontinuity is applied to certain kinds of contrasting soil materials. Unconsolidated contrasting soil material may differ in pore-size distribution, particle-size distribution, mineralogy, bulk density, or other properties. Some of the differences may not be readily observable in the field. Some deposits are clearly stratified, such as some lake sediments and glacial outwash, and the discontinuities may be sharply defined. Contrasting materials can be confused with the effects of soil formation. Silt content may decrease regularly with depth in soils presumed to have formed in glacial till. The higher silt content in the upper part of these soils can be explained by factors other than soil formation. In some of these soils, small amounts of eolian material may have been deposited on the surface over the centuries and mixed by insects and rodents with the underlying glacial till. In others, the silt distribution reflects water sorting. Inferences about contrasting properties inherited from differing layers of geologic material may be noted when the soil is described. Generally, each identifiable layer that differs clearly in properties from adjacent layers is recognized as a subhorizon. Whether it is recognized as a discontinuity or not depends on the degree of contrast with overlying and underlying layers and the thickness. For many soils the properties inherited from even sharply contrasting layers are not consistent from place to place and are described in general terms. The C layer of a soil in stratified lake sediments, for example, might be described as follows: "consists of layers of silt and clay, 1 to 20 cm thick; the aggregate thickness of layers of silt and that of the layers of clay are in a ratio of about 4 to 1; material is about 80 percent silt." Footnotes
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